Introductory Issues#

Sources and Purpose#

The author of the Third Gospel begins with a reference to previous narratives of Christian beginnings based on reports of “eyewitnesses and ministers of the word” (1:1-2). He then defines his project as “an orderly account” of that tradition and states a purpose to convince his audience of its reliability (1:3-4).

Authorship#

The Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles must come from the same author, for they both begin with dedications to Theophilus and exhibit common interests and a common style of writing. Moreover, Acts refers back to the “first account” (Acts 1:1).

Since Luke and Acts must come from the same author, we deduce Luke’s authorship of Luke-Acts from the fact that he is the only one of Paul’s traveling companions mentioned in the Pauline Letters who could have written the “we”-sections of Acts. All others are excluded by the impossibility of harmonizing their geographical movements according to the Letters with the geographical movements in the “we”–sections of Acts.

Furthermore, Lucan authorship has the support of early tradition: the Muratorian Canon, the anti-Marcionite prologue to Luke, Irenaeus (Against Heresies 3.1.1), plus later Christian writers.

The Evangelist#

Luke was probably a Gentile (or at least a Hellenistic Jew) and may have been converted in Antioch, Syria (compare the anti-Marcionite prologue to Luke and “we” in Codex D at Acts 11:28, dealing with Antioch). Luke’s name is Greek.

In the farewells of Colossians 4:10-14, Paul seems to distinguish him from Jews, perhaps Hebraistic ones, and links him with Gentiles.

His facility in using the Greek language also suggests that he was a Gentile (or a Hellenistic Jew), more at home in the Greek language than most Jews would have been. The Greek style of Luke, together with that in the Letter to the Hebrews, is the most refined in the New Testament. Exceptions occur where Luke appears to have been following Semitic oral or written sources, or adopting a Semitic style of Greek to sound “biblical,” that is, Septuagintal (much as the use of thou, thee, thine, and associated verbal forms sounds biblical in English because of the influence of the King James Version). On the other hand, both of the books authored by Luke begin with a formal dedication in Greco-Roman literary style — the only New Testament books to do so.

In Colossians 4:14, Paul calls Luke “the beloved physician,” a description supported by Luke’s more than usual interest in sickness and by his frequent use of medical terms. This feature of his writing should not be overstressed.

Theophilus and a Gentile Audience#

Luke dedicates his work to Theophilus, perhaps a potential or recent convert or a patron who sponsored the circulation of Luke-Acts, and slants both of his books toward Gentiles, especially those who have open-minded interest in the historical origins of Christianity — most probably proselytes and especially God-fearers who have renounced idolatry and immorality and attend Jewish synagogues.

Luke shows that the gospel is universal, that Jesus has broken down the barrier between Jews and Gentiles and inaugurated a worldwide community in which the old barriers between slaves and free and between men and women no longer exist.

Because of his Gentile audience, Luke does not exhibit a narrowly Jewish interest in fulfilled messianic prophecy, as Matthew does, but a broader interest in God’s historical plan as revealed by the Old Testament and in the continuity of Christianity with Judaism.

Luke also modifies peculiarly Jewish expressions and allusions to Jewish customs in order that Gentiles may better understand.

Universality#

There are many specific indications of Luke’s promotion of Christianity in the Greco-Roman world at large, indications largely missing in the other Gospels.

• Special interest attaches to dating Jesus’ career by the events of secular history (1:5; 2:1; 3:1-2).

• Jesus is “a light to the Gentiles” (2:32).

• A quotation of Isaiah 40 includes the statement that “all flesh will see God’s salvation” (3:6).

• Jesus’ genealogy goes back, not just to Abraham, father of the Jewish nation (as in Matthew 1:1-2), but to Adam, father of the whole human race, and ultimately to God himself (3:23-38).

• Jesus calls attention to Elijah’s staying with a Phoenician widow instead of an Israelite and to Elisha’s healing a Syrian leper (Naaman) rather than an Israelite (4:25-27).

In common with Matthew, Luke contains the Great Commission to evangelize “all nations” (24:47; compare Matthew 28:19-20). But Matthew’s is a universality in which Jewish Christianity has shed its parochialism, whereas Luke’s is a Hellenistic universality which never knew Jewish parochialism.

Lucan universality includes not only Gentiles, but also social outcasts, such as:

• the immoral woman who anointed Jesus’ feet (7:36-50)

• Zacchaeus the tax collector (19:1-10)

• the repentant criminal who died alongside Jesus (23:39-43)

• the prodigal son (15:11-32, parabolic)

• the repentant tax collector (18:9-14, parabolic)

• Samaritans

• poor people

The beatitude on the poor lacks Matthew’s qualification “in spirit” (6:20; contrast Matthew 5:3), as also the beatitude on the hungry lacks Matthew’s qualification “for righteousness” (6:21; contrast Matthew 5:6). And Luke balances the beatitudes on the poor and hungry with woes against the rich and full (6:24-25).

It is Luke who calls the Pharisees “lovers of money” (16:14) and gives us the parables of the rich fool, the dishonest manager who acted charitably (and therefore shrewdly), and the rich man and Lazarus (12:13-21; 16:1-13, 19-31).

Lucan universality shows itself also in the special attention paid to women:

• Mary, Elizabeth, and Anna in the nativity story (1:5-2:39)

• the widow of Nain (7:11-17)

• the women who supported Jesus financially (8:1-3), an immoral woman (7:36-50)

• Martha and Mary (10:38-42)

• a poor widow (21:1-4)

• the women who lamented Jesus (23:27-31), watched his crucifixion (23:49), and intended to embalm him but witnessed the empty tomb instead and reported his resurrection (23:55-24:11)

Luke thus portrays Jesus as a cosmopolitan Savior with broad sympathies, one who mingles with all sorts of people, socializes with both Pharisees and tax collectors (5:27-32; 7:36; 11:37; 14:1; 19:1-10), and concerns himself with victims of personal calamity (7:11-17; 8:40-56; 9:37-43).

Prayer#

On numerous occasions Jesus appears as a man of prayer: at his baptism (3:21), after ministering to crowds (5:16), before choosing the Twelve (6:12), before Peter’s confession and Jesus’ prediction of his own death and resurrection (9:18), at the time of his transfiguration (9:28-29), on the return of the Seventy-two from their mission (10:21), before teaching the disciples to pray (11:1), in Gethsemane (22:39-46), and twice on the cross (23:34, 46).

Almost all these references to Jesus’ prayers are distinctive of Luke’s Gospel. Only Luke records two parables of Jesus about prayer (11:5-13; 18:1-8) and informs us that Jesus had prayed especially for Peter (22:31-32).

Holy Spirit#

Luke similarly emphasizes the work of the Holy Spirit.

• John the Baptist was to be filled with the Holy Spirit even from his mother’s womb (1:15).

• The Holy Spirit comes on Mary in order that she may miraculously give birth to the Son of God (1:35).

• When Mary visits Elizabeth, Elizabeth is filled with the Holy Spirit to say, “Blessed are you among women, and blessed is the fruit of your womb” (1:42).

• When John the Baptist is born and then named, his father, Zacharias (Zechariah), is filled with the Holy Spirit and prophesies (1:67).

• The Holy Spirit rests on Simeon, informs him that before dying he will behold the Christ, and leads him to the temple to see the Christ child (2:25-27).

• After receiving the Spirit at his baptism, Jesus is “full of the Holy Spirit” and “led by the Spirit” in the wilderness (4:1).

• Following his temptation, he returns to Galilee “in the power of the Spirit” (4:14).

• When the seventy-two disciples return from their successful mission, he rejoices “in the Holy Spirit” (10:21).

• Before his ascension he promises that the Spirit will clothe the disciples “with power from on high” (24:49).

Consequently, the Gospel of Luke (as later the book of Acts) throbs with the thrill of an irresistible movement of God’s Spirit in human history—hence the many references to joy (1:14, 44, 47; 6:21, 23; 10:21; 15:5-7, 9, 10, 23-25, 32; 24:52-53). Luke writes with supreme confidence in the inevitably successful advance of the gospel inaugurated by Jesus “the Lord” (a favorite designation of Jesus in Luke) and carried on by his disciples in the energy of the Holy Spirit.

Date and Provenance#

Nothing prevents a fairly early date for the Third Gospel, slightly after that of Mark (and perhaps Matthew as well) under the assumption that Luke utilized Mark. Many scholars think that Luke’s changing the abomination of desolation (Mark 13:14) to the siege of Jerusalem (Luke 21:20) proves that he wrote after A.D. 70. But this line of reasoning again overlooks or denies the possibility that Jesus really did predict the siege and destruction of Jerusalem.

Luke may have omitted mentioning the abomination of desolation simply because he knew that his Gentile audience would not understand it. If he was conforming Jesus’ words to the events in and around A.D. 70, why did he retain the command, “Flee to the mountains” (21:21), despite the fact that during the siege of Jerusalem Christians fled to Pella in an unmountainous part of Transjordan?

Acts closes with Paul’s awaiting trial in Rome, probably because events had progressed no further at the time of writing (see pages 334-36). If so, Acts dates from some time before A.D. 64-67, the most likely period of Paul’s martyrdom. Then if Luke wrote his Gospel before Acts, as would seem likely, the Gospel must likewise date from a slightly earlier time.

The place of writing might be Rome, where Luke had gone with Paul for Paul’s imprisonment (though early tradition is divided between Greece and Rome as the place of writing).

Plan and Materials#

The Gospel of Luke is the most comprehensive of the Synoptics; indeed, it is the longest book of the New Testament.

• In the first two chapters Luke begins with a prologue and stories concerning Jesus’ birth and boyhood.

• The baptism, genealogy, and temptation of Jesus follow in 3:1-4:13

• The Galilean ministry in 4:14-9:50

• The last journey to Jerusalem in 9:51-19:27

• Passion Week, Jesus’ crucifixion, resurrection, postresurrection ministry, and ascension in 19:28-24:53.

The last journey to Jerusalem makes the most distinctive contribution of Luke to our knowledge of Jesus’ career.

In that section he presents the ministry of Jesus in Perea, gives many of the most famous parables not elsewhere recorded (the good Samaritan, the rich fool, the prodigal son, the rich man and Lazarus, the Pharisee and the tax collector, and others), and emphasizes the significance of Jerusalem as the goal of Jesus’ ministry.

Later, in Acts, Jerusalem will turn into the place from which Christian witnesses go out to evangelize the world.

The nativity story in Luke contains much information not found in Matthew, including several hymns and an account of John the Baptist’s birth as well as Jesus’ birth. Finally, Luke gives material concerning Jesus’ resurrection quite different from that in the other Gospels and becomes the only evangelist to describe Jesus’ ascension.

Summary#

Luke writes his Gospel, the first volume of a two-volume work, to assure his audience of the reliability of the Jesus-tradition, based as it is on the reports of eyewitnesses. This Gospel presents the Jewish Jesus in ways that would appeal to an audience of high-minded Gentiles. So emphasis falls on his broad sympathies, deep piety, moral attractiveness, political innocence, and on the same characteristics of his followers.

The Holy Spirit’s activity comes in for repeated mention, and Jerusalem appears prominently as the topographical goal of Jesus’ itineration, especially his journey there for Passion Week.

Luke puts a good deal of material distinctive to his Gospel—including some of Jesus’ most famous parables, such as that of the prodigal son—in the course of this journey. Among other distinctives are an account of John the Baptist’s birth, the standpoint of Mary in the story of Jesus’ birth, his visit to the temple during boyhood, a mission of seventy-two disciples in addition to that of the Twelve, Jesus’ being tried before Herod Antipas as well as the Sanhedrin and Pilate, the repentance of one of the two criminals crucified with Jesus, the risen Jesus’ traveling to Emmaus with two nonapostolic disciples, an emphasis on the physicality of his resurrection, and his ascension.