Paul’s Letters and Letter-Writing in the Greco-Roman World#

Length, Contents, Address#

In the Greco-Roman world private letters averaged close to 90 words in length. Literary letters, such as those written by the Roman orator and statesman Cicero and by Seneca the philosopher, averaged around 200 words. Since the usual papyrus sheet measured about 9-1/2 inches by 11-1/2 inches (approximately the size of modern notebook paper) and could accommodate 150 to 250 words, depending on the size of writing, most ancient letters occupied no more than one papyrus page.

The average length of Paul’s letters runs to about 1,300 words, ranging from 335 words in Philemon to 7,114 words in Romans, that is, several times longer than the average letter of ancient times. From one standpoint, Paul invented a new literary form—and new not only in its prolongation as a letter but also in the theological character of its contents and usually in the communal nature of its address—something like an ancient literary “epistle” containing a political, philosophical, or similar essay.

From another standpoint, however, Paul’s letters count as true letters in that they have genuine and specific addresses, whereas ancient literary epistles were written for a broad readership despite their fictitiously narrow addresses.

Amanuenses#

For long documents like Paul’s Letters, single papyrus sheets were joined edge to edge and rolled to form a scroll. Since the coarse grain of papyrus made writing tedious, authors usually dictated their letters to a professional scribe, called an amanuensis, who used shorthand during rapid dictation. The ruggedness of Paul’s literary style—seen, for example, in numerous incomplete and otherwise broken sentences—suggests that at times he dictated too rapidly for close attention to careful sentence structure and that his amanuenses found it difficult to keep up.

Sudden breaks in thought similarly suggest temporary suspension of dictation, perhaps overnight, or for shorter or longer periods. Sometimes authors simply left oral instructions, a rough draft, or notes for their amanuenses to follow. Under such circumstances the amanuenses themselves molded the exact phraseology, a factor that may account for some of the stylistic differences among letters by the same author. The author finally edited the letter.

We know for certain of Paul’s using amanuenses from the fact that one of them identifies himself by name. Also, Paul’s frequent statements that he is writing the final greeting with his own hand imply that the rest was written with the help of amanuenses (1 Corinthians 16:21; Galatians 6:11; Colossians 4:18; 2 Thessalonians 3:17; compare Philemon 19).

Format#

Ancient letters opened with a greeting, which included the name of the sender and that of the recipient and usually wishes for good health and success and an assurance of the sender’s prayers. The main body of the letter followed, and finally the farewell and sometimes a signature.

Many times the farewell included greetings from others besides the author and further good wishes. Through fear that documents were being or might be forged in his name, Paul adopted the practice of writing the farewell lines as well as a signature with his own hand to guarantee authenticity. Usually letters carried no date. The lack of public postal service made it necessary to send letters with travelers.

Parenesis#

Paul closes several of his letters with a section containing ethical instructions. Such instructions appear scattered throughout his other letters and letters by other writers of the New Testament. Scholars have noted striking similarities to Jewish and Stoic ethical codes of the same historical period. Nevertheless, the New Testament writers root Christian conduct in the dynamics of faith in Jesus rather than throwing out a lofty but lifeless set of precepts without power to effect their own fulfillment.

The similarities of exhortations in the letters suggests that the authors draw from a common stock of parenetic (hortatory, instructional) tradition in the church, originally designed for catechizing newly converted candidates for baptism. On the other hand, Paul may simply develop his own set of ethical instructions for converts and influence later writers, such as Peter, who knew Paul’s Letters. One further element needs mention, a drawing on Jesus’ ethical teaching, preserved in oral and written tradition and often reflected in the phraseology and concepts of the letters.

Order#

In our present New Testament, the order of Paul’s letters written to churches depends on length, beginning with the longest (Romans) and ending with the shortest (2 Thessalonians). The same principle of arrangement holds for his letters written to individuals (1 and 2 Timothy, Titus, and Philemon). We will consider these letters in the chronological order of their writing so far as that order can be determined with some probability.

Galatians: Against the Judaizers#

Introductory Issues#

The Judaizing Controversy#

Though a few scholars think that Paul’s opponents in Galatia were semipagan, semi-Jewish syncretists, perhaps of a Gnostic sort, it is far more likely that the letter to the Galatians has to do with the Judaizing controversy about which the Jerusalem Council met (Acts 15). As with that council, so too with Galatians it is almost impossible to overestimate how historically crucial were the theological issues at stake.

• Conversion of Gentiles forced the church to face several important questions:

• Should Gentile Christians be required to submit to circumcision and practice the Jewish way of life, as Gentile proselytes to Judaism were required to do?

• To those Gentile Christians unwilling to become wholly Jewish, should the church grant a second-class citizenship, as for Gentile “God-fearers” in Judaism?

• Most importantly, what makes a person Christian—faith in Christ solely, or faith in Christ plus adherence to the principles and practices of Judaism?

Themes and Address#

Galatians insists on Christian liberty from any doctrine of salvation that requires human effort in addition to divine grace, and on the unity of all believers in Jesus Christ.

Paul writes this letter to believers residing in the region known as Galatia, but his use of the term Galatia has caused a debate that affects our dating of the letter. In agreement with its original meaning, the term may refer exclusively to territory north of the cities of Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, and Lystra.

It may also include those cities, for the Romans added southern districts when they made Galatia a province.

North Galatia#

According to the North Galatian theory, Paul addresses the letter to Christians in North Galatia, which he did not visit until his second journey on his way from Pisidian Antioch to Troas. Under this view the letter could not have been written until some time after the beginning stage of the second journey and therefore after the Jerusalem Council of Acts 15, which preceded the second journey.

The visit to Jerusalem that Paul describes in Galatians 2 probably has to do with the Jerusalem Council, recently held.

Perhaps the strongest arguments for the North Galatian theory, with its late dating, are the original restriction of the term Galatia to the northern territory and the similarity of the statements by Paul concerning justification by faith to what he says in Romans, which he certainly wrote at a later date.

Against the North Galatian theory, Luke nowhere suggests that Paul evangelized North Galatia. It is even doubtful that Paul visited that territory on his second journey, for “the region of Phrygia and Galatia” in Acts 16:6 more naturally refers to the southern territory. And elsewhere in his letters Paul consistently uses geographical terms in an imperial sense, which would allow South Galatia in his Letter to the Galatians.

South Galatia#

According to the usual form of the South Galatian theory, Paul addresses his first letter to the churches in South Galatia just after the first missionary journey but before the Jerusalem Council.

The visit to Jerusalem described in Galatians 2 has nothing to do with the Jerusalem Council, but refers instead to the famine relief visit mentioned in Acts 11:27-30.

An argument in favor of the South Galatian address and early date is that if Paul wrote the letter after the Jerusalem Council, he would probably have capitalized on that council’s decree favoring Gentile Christian freedom from the Mosaic law, the main topic under discussion in Galatians. But he makes no mention of the decree.

First Thessalonians: Congratulations and Comfort#

Introductory Issues#

Themes#

Paul’s letters to the church in Thessalonica are best known for their teaching about the second coming of Jesus Christ and associated events. These two letters, the Olivet Discourse of Jesus, and the Apocalypse of John (the book of Revelation) form the three main predictively prophetic portions of the New Testament.

In 1 Thessalonians this eschatological note belongs to the second of the two overall themes:

• Congratulations to the Thessalonian believers on their conversion and progress in the Christian faith

• Exhortations toward further progress, with particular emphasis on comfort from and expectancy toward the second coming

Background#

Thessalonica, the capital city of Macedonia, lay on the Via Egnatia, the main highway connecting Rome with the East. The city had its own government, led by politarchs, and a Jewish settlement. Paul evangelized the city on his second missionary journey. Some Jews and many Greeks and prominent women embraced the Christian faith. Paul’s statement, “You turned to God from idols” (1 Thessalonians 1:9), implies that the majority of Christians there were Gentiles, for Jews of that era did not practice idolatry. Unbelieving Jews in Thessalonica violently opposed the gospel by assaulting the house of Jason, Paul’s host, and later traveled to Berea to drive Paul out of that city too.

Some scholars have nevertheless put a gap between the ministry in the synagogue and the riot, because Paul mentions having worked for his own living in Thessalonica (1 Thessalonians 2:7-11) and having received one or two gifts from Philippi during his stay in Thessalonica (Philippians 4:16). But he may have begun working immediately on arrival in Thessalonica and continued for three or four weeks. Likewise, two offerings could have arrived from Philippi within a month.

Another argument for a longer stay in Thessalonica is that 1 and 2 Thessalonians presuppose more doctrinal teaching than Paul could have given in a month or so. But Paul probably taught his converts outside the synagogue on weekdays; and Timothy, who stayed longer in Thessalonica and after leaving returned again, must have taught them yet more. Therefore we should probably limit Paul’s ministry in Thessalonica to about a month.

Occasion#

Timothy rejoined Paul in Athens, went back to Thessalonica, and then rejoined Paul in Corinth. His report provided the occasion for Paul’s writing of 1 Thessalonians (compare 3:1-2 with Acts 18:5). We infer, then, that Paul wrote 1 Thessalonians from Corinth during his second journey, not very many weeks after evangelizing the addressees.

Second Thessalonians: Correction on the Second Coming#

Introductory Issues#

Occasion and Theme#

Some scholars reverse the order of 1 and 2 Thessalonians; but that view lacks support in ancient manuscripts and, among other considerations, 2 Thessalonians 2:15 (“you were taught through our letter”) seems to presuppose 1 Thessalonians. So Paul writes 2 Thessalonians from Corinth on his second missionary journey, shortly after writing 1 Thessalonians.

During the interval between writings, fanaticism increased in the church at Thessalonica. The fanaticism arose out of a belief in the immediacy of Jesus’ return. Apparently that belief arose in turn out of a desire for deliverance from persecution. (The wish was the father of the thought.) Paul therefore writes this second letter to the Thessalonians to quiet the fanaticism by correcting the eschatology that gave rise to it.

Summary#

By and large, Paul’s letters are hybrids of a private letter and a literary epistle. Like other authors, he employed the services of amanuenses. The bulk of his letters contain theological and parenetic materials, sometimes in succession, sometimes mixed. The letters to churches come first in the New Testament, then those to individuals; and within each group the order is one of decreasing length.

Galatians probably comes first in the order of writing, postdates Paul’s first missionary journey, antedates the Jerusalem Council and second missionary journey, and has a South Galatian address. The letter takes aim against the Judaizing heresy, according to which salvation requires adherence to the Mosaic law, beginning with circumcision, in addition to faith in Christ.

Paul writes 1 Thessalonians from Corinth during his second missionary journey. The letter responds to a report by Timothy concerning the state of the church in Thessalonica. The good progress of recent converts there draws Paul’s praise, and their sorrow over the decease of some in their number draws words of comfort from him. The comfort consists in an assurance that deceased believers will be resurrected at the Lord’s return. In the meantime, says Paul, living believers should remain alert so as not to be taken by surprise.

Paul writes 2 Thessalonians a little later than 1 Thessalonians during his stay in Corinth on the second missionary journey. Between the two letters, there has arisen among Thessalonian believers a belief in the immediacy of Jesus’ return to destroy their persecutors. The end-of-the-age rebellion against God—a rebellion led by “the man of lawlessness” (Paul’s term for the antichrist) — must take place first. So go back to normal Christian living.