Paul’s Imprisonment#

Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon constitute the Prison (or Captivity) Letters, so called because Paul is in prison (that is, captivity) when he writes them. There are two known imprisonments of Paul, one in Caesarea under the governorships of Felix and Festus (Acts 23:23-26:32), another in Rome while Paul awaits trial before Caesar (Acts 28:30-31). Supported by a small amount of early church tradition, some scholars have conjectured yet another imprisonment in Ephesus during Paul’s extended ministry there.

Paul does mention “frequent” imprisonments in 2 Corinthians 11:23, but these probably refer to overnight stays in jail, as at Philippi (Acts 16:19-40). The traditional view assigns all the Prison Letters to Paul’s Roman imprisonment, but the Ephesian and Caesarean possibilities must at least be kept in mind for each of the Prison Letters.

Philemon: Plea for a Runaway Slave#

Introductory Issues#

Address#

In the Letter to Philemon, Paul asks a Christian slavemaster named Philemon to receive kindly, perhaps even to release, his recently converted runaway slave Onesimus, now returning. A resident of Colossae, Philemon became a Christian through Paul (“you owe me your very self,” verse 19). This conversion probably took place in nearby Ephesus during Paul’s ministry there.

A church meets in the house of Philemon (verse 2). Early Christians had no church buildings and therefore met in homes. If the number of believers grew too large for one home to accommodate them, they used several homes (hence the expression “house-churches”).

Onesimus: Slave or Free man?#

It has recently been argued that Onesimus was not a slave, much less a runaway slave, but a free man—perhaps even Philemon’s biological brother—who sought out Paul for the purpose of getting him as Philemon’s friend and patron to settle a financial dispute between himself (Onesimus) and Philemon.

But it is unlikely that “as a slave” in verse 16 means “as if a slave”; and in that same verse “a brother in the Lord” is more easily understood to mean “a brother through shared relationship with the Lord,” as in Paul’s calling Timothy “our brother” (verse 1), than to mean “a biological brother who also happens to be a Christian.” Furthermore, under Roman law a slave could seek the help of his owner’s friend to reestablish a good relationship with the owner.

Colossians: Christ as the Head of the Church#

Introductory Issues#

Theme#

In his Letter to the Colossians, Paul highlights the divine person and creative and redemptive work of Christ against devaluation of Christ by a particular brand of heresy that threatens the church in Colossae. Then Paul draws out the practical implications of this high Christology for everyday life and conduct.

Ephesian Origin?#

The ancient Marcionite prologue to Colossians says that Paul writes this letter from Ephesus. The tradition is doubtful, however, because it also says that Paul writes Philemon from Rome. Yet Colossians and Philemon are inseparably linked; both letters mention Timothy, Aristarchus, Mark, Epaphras, Luke; Demas, Archippus, and Onesimus. The duplication of so many names must indicate that Paul writes and sends both letters at the same time and from the same place.

Furthermore, if Paul writes Colossians and Philemon from an Ephesian imprisonment, the slave Onesimus absconded with his master’s money only 100 miles west to Ephesus. The shortness of this distance seems improbable, for Onesimus would have known that he might easily be captured so close to home. More likely, he fled far away to the larger city of Rome to hide himself among the crowds there. Moreover, Luke is with Paul when Paul writes Colossians (Colossians 4:14); but the description of Paul’s Ephesian ministry is not one of Luke’s “we”– sections in Acts. Despite partial support from the Marcionite tradition, then, we should reject an Ephesian imprisonment as the place of origin for Colossians.

Caesarean Origin?#

It is even more improbable that Colossians comes from the Caesarean imprisonment. Caesarea was much smaller than Rome and therefore a less likely destination for a runaway slave seeking to escape detection. Onesimus would scarcely have come in contact with Paul at Caesarea, for only Paul’s friends could see him there (Acts 24:23). Also, the expectation of Paul that he will soon be released (he asks Philemon to prepare lodging for him, Philemon 22) does not tally with the Caesarean imprisonment, where Paul came to realize that his only hope lay in appealing to Caesar.

Roman Origin#

Several considerations favor the Roman imprisonment:

• It is most likely that to hide his identity Onesimus fled to Rome, the most populous city in the empire.

• Luke’s presence with Paul at the writing of Colossians agrees with Luke’s accompanying Paul to Rome in Acts.

• The difference in doctrinal emphases between Colossians, where Paul is not preoccupied with the Judaizing controversy, and the Letters to the Galatians, Romans, and Corinthians, where he strongly emphasizes freedom from the Mosaic law, suggests that he writes Colossians during a later period, such as his Roman imprisonment, when the Judaizing controversy no longer dominates his thinking (though the attack on Judaizers in Philippians 3, probably written later, weakens this third argument).

Occasion#

The city of Colossae lay in the valley of the ↓Lycus River in a mountainous district about 100 miles east of Ephesus. The neighboring cities of ↓Laodicea and ↓Hierapolis overshadowed Colossae in importance. The distant way in which Paul writes that he has “heard” of his audience’s faith (1:4) and his inclusion of them among those “who have never seen [his] face in the flesh” (2:1) imply that he neither founded the church in Colossae nor has visited it.

Since the Colossians learned God’s grace from Epaphras (1:6-7), Epaphras must have founded the church. Yet he is with Paul at the time of writing (4:12-13). We may surmise that Epaphras became a Christian through Paul’s Ephesian ministry, evangelized the neighboring region of Colossae, Laodicea, and Hierapolis, and is now visiting Paul in prison to solicit his advice concerning a dangerous heresy threatening the Colossian church.

Apparently Archippus has been left in charge of the church (4:17). Under this hypothesis we can understand why Paul assumes authority over the Colossian church even though he has never been there: since he is “grandfather” of the church through his convert Epaphras, his judgment has been sought.

A Gentile Church#

The Christians in Colossae are predominantly Gentile. Paul talks about “the uncircumcision” of their “flesh” (2:13). In 1:27 the phrases “among the Gentiles” and “in you” seem to be synonymous. And the description of the Colossians as “once estranged and hostile in mind” (1:21) matches similar phraseology in Ephesians 2:11-13, where Paul refers explicitly to “Gentiles by birth.”

The Colossian Heresy#

The Letter to the Colossians centers on the so-called Colossian heresy. We can infer certain features of this false teaching from the counter-emphases of Paul. In fact, he may borrow the false teachers’ favorite terms, such as knowledge and fullness, and turn them against the heresy by filling them with orthodox content. The heresy:

1. Diminishes the person of Christ, so that Paul stresses the preeminence of Christ (1:15-19)

2. Emphasizes human philosophy, that is, human speculations divorced from divine revelation (2:8)

3. Contains elements of Judaism, such as circumcision (2:11; 3:11), rabbinic tradition (2:8), dietary regulations and Sabbath and festival observances (2:16)

4. Includes the worship of angels as intermediaries keeping the highest God (pure Spirit) unsullied through contact with the physical universe (a pagan feature, since although orthodox Jews have constructed a hierarchy of angels, they do not worship them or regard the materiality of the universe as evil [2:18])

5. Flaunts an exclusivist air of secrecy and superiority, against which Paul stresses the all-inclusiveness and publicity of the gospel (1:20, 23, 28; 3:11)

The Colossian heresy, then, blends together Jewish legalism, Greek philosophic speculation, and oriental mysticism. Perhaps the location of Colossae on an important trade route linking East and West has contributed to the mixed character of the false teaching.

Ephesians: The Church as the Body of Christ#

Introductory Issues#

Theme#

Unlike most of Paul’s letters, Ephesians seems not to have been written in response to a particular circumstance or controversy. It has an almost meditative quality. In the theme shared with Colossians—Christ the head of the church his body—Ephesians emphasizes the church as Christ’s body, whereas Colossians emphasizes the headship of Christ.

Tychicus#

Paul must have written Ephesians and Colossians at approximately the same time, because the subject matter in the two letters looks related and because some verses about Tychicus appear in almost identical form in both letters. The indication that by word of mouth Tychicus will add further details about Paul’s circumstances implies that Tychicus will carry both letters at once to their destinations. Paul’s self-identification as “a prisoner of the Lord” indicates his imprisonment at the time of writing and his awareness of the Lord’s purpose in that imprisonment.

Though Ephesians may be directed to the region around Ephesus rather than to Ephesus itself, it is hardly probable that Paul writes from an Ephesian imprisonment. So far as the Caesarean imprisonment is concerned, his reference to preaching “boldly” as “an ambassador in chains” implies that he is still proclaiming the gospel in spite of his imprisonment (Ephesians 6:20); yet in Caesarea only his friends could visit him (Acts 24:22-23). Like the closely related letters to the Colossians and Philemon, therefore, Ephesians seems to have been written during the Roman imprisonment.

In Rome, however, he preached to a steady stream of visitors who came to his house-prison (Acts 28:30-31).

Destination Not Ephesus#

The phrase “in Ephesus,” which refers to the locale of the addressees (1:1), is missing in the most ancient manuscripts. Thus Paul omits the geographical location of the addressees altogether. Furthermore, the distant way in which he speaks of his having “heard” about their faith (1:15) and of their having “heard” about his ministry (3:2) combines with the absence of his usual terms of endearment to rule out Ephesus as the destination; for Paul labored there for more than two years and knew the Ephesian Christians intimately, as they also knew him (Acts 19:1-20:1, 10-38).

Laodiceans?#

Some early tradition identifies the church in Laodicea as the recipients of this letter. The German scholar Adolf von Harnack suggested that early copyists suppressed the name Laodicea because of the condemnation of the Laodicean church in Revelation 3:14-22 and that later copyists substituted the name Ephesus because of Paul’s close association with the church in that city. Paul does mention a letter to Laodicea; but since no manuscript mentions Laodicea in Ephesians 1:1, the making of “Ephesians” into “Laodiceans” in early tradition probably represents an attempt to identify the letter to Laodicea mentioned in Colossians.

A Circular Letter#

More likely, “Ephesians” is a circular letter addressed to various churches in the vicinity of Ephesus. Under this view, Paul’s mention of the letter to Laodicea in Colossians 4:16 may refer to “Ephesians” but would not imply that the letter is addressed only to the church of Laodicea. Rather, in its circulation to the churches throughout the region the letter has reached Laodicea and is about to go to nearby Colossae.

A circular destination for the letter then explains the omission of a city name in the address. If a single copy of the letter circulated from Ephesus and came back to Ephesus, the name of that city could easily have become linked to the letter, as happened.

Structure#

Like Colossians, Ephesians falls into two parts. Ephesians 1-3 contains doctrine and discusses the spiritual privileges of the church. Ephesians 4-6 contains exhortation and discusses the spiritual responsibilities of Christians.

Philippians: A Friendly Note of Thanks#

Introductory Issues#

Theme and Occasion#

The church at Philippi appears to be Paul’s favorite. He has received regular assistance from it (Philippians 4:15-20; 2 Corinthians 11:7-9). The Letter to the Philippians is thus the most personal of any that he wrote to a church. In fact, it is a thank-you for their most recent financial gift (4:10, 14), which they sent through Epaphroditus (2:25).

Epaphroditus#

During his trip or after his arrival with the offering, Epaphroditus fell almost fatally ill (2:27). Back home the Philippians heard of his illness, and word came to Epaphroditus that they were concerned about him. Paul senses that Epaphroditus wants to return to Philippi and therefore sends him with the letter (2:25-30).

Purposes#

The return of Epaphroditus not only enables Paul to write his gratitude for the financial assistance given by believers in Philippi. It also gives him opportunity:

• to counteract a tendency toward divisiveness in their church (2:2; 4:2)

• to warn against Judaizers (chapter 3)

• to prepare the church for approaching visits by Timothy and, God willing, by Paul himself (2:19-24)

Caesarean Origin?#

Paul is in prison at the time of writing (“my chains,” 1:7, 13). But to which of his imprisonments does he refer? Probably not the Caesarean, because there he would not be able to preach so freely as is implied in 1:12-13 (compare Acts 24:23). Also, he would know that release in Caesarea would mean almost instant lynching by Jews in the territory; his only prospect of safety would lie in appealing to Caesar and thus going to Rome under guard. Yet in Philippians 1:25; 2:24 the hope for release (Philemon 22) has turned into confidence that the release will occur “soon.”

Ephesian Origin?#

Presenting a better possibility is an imprisonment in Ephesus. Paul writes that he hopes to send Timothy to Philippi (2:19, 23); and Luke writes that Paul sent Timothy and Erastus to Philippi from Ephesus (Acts 19:22). The polemic against Judaizers in chapter 3 looks like Paul’s earlier polemics around the time he spent in Ephesus.

Furthermore, inscriptions testify that a detachment of the ↓Praetorian Guard was once stationed in Ephesus, and Paul mentions the Praetorian Guard in 1:13. Similarly, “Caesar’s household” (4:22) might refer to imperial civil servants at Ephesus. According to Acts, Luke accompanied Paul to Rome but not to Ephesus. Paul does not mention Luke in Philippians as he does in Colossians 4:14 and Philemon 24. This nonmention therefore suggests that Paul writes Philippians from an Ephesian imprisonment. (But if he writes toward the end of his Roman imprisonment, which lasted at least two years, Luke might have left Paul by then, so that this argument from silence is not decisive.)

Another argument for an Ephesian imprisonment is that if Paul writes Philippians from Rome at a later date, he could hardly state that his readers have for some time “lacked opportunity” to support him financially (4:10). So much time has elapsed by the time of the Roman imprisonment that they would have had prolonged opportunity; but an earlier Ephesian imprisonment allows for such a statement.

On the other hand, we do not know all the financial circumstances of Paul and the Philippians. To avoid the charge of embezzlement, Paul may have refused personal gifts during the period he was collecting money for the church in Jerusalem. Such a refusal may be the reason the Philippians have “lacked opportunity.”

What is generally considered the strongest argument in favor of an Ephesian imprisonment over against the Roman is that Philippians presupposes too many journeys between Rome and Philippi (about a month’s journey apart), whereas the short distance between Ephesus and Philippi makes the numerous journeys more conceivable within a short period of time. The journeys presupposed in Philippians are as follows:

• The carrying of a message from Rome to Philippi that Paul has been imprisoned in Rome

• Epaphroditus’s bringing of a gift from Philippi to Rome

• The delivery back to Philippi of word that Epaphroditus has fallen ill

• The return of a report that the Philippians are concerned about Epaphroditus

In reality, however, this argument for Ephesus and against Rome lacks substance. Time for the journeys between Rome and Philippi would require only four to six months in toto. Allowance for intervals between the journeys still keeps the whole amount of required time well within the two years that we know Paul spent in Rome (Acts 28:30). And he almost certainly spent more than two years there; for even by their end his trial had not yet started, but a transfer from his own rented house (Acts 28:16, 23, 30) to the barracks of the Praetorian Guard on the ↓Palatine Hill (Philippians 1:13) and his confidence of soon release and of a subsequent visit to Philippi (1:19-26; 2:23-24) would favor that his trial is finally in progress and near conclusion and therefore that he is writing after the two years mentioned in Acts.

Moreover, the Philippians may have known before Paul arrived in Rome that he was going there as a prisoner, so that Epaphroditus already could have started toward Rome. Or, since the shipwreck delayed Paul at Malta, Epaphroditus may even have arrived in Rome before Paul. The Christians in Rome knew beforehand of Paul’s coming, for they met Paul outside the city and escorted him the rest of the way (Acts 28:15-16). Had Epaphroditus informed them? Only the second, third, and fourth journeys are necessarily presupposed, then; and the temporal factor does not at all hinder the view that Paul writes to the Philippians from Rome.

Against an Ephesian imprisonment, Paul fails to mention the offering for Jerusalem, though it was very much on his mind throughout his third missionary journey, during which he ministered in Ephesus; and his writing about monetary matters in Philippians would have made a reference to the offering almost certain had he been writing from Ephesus during that period. Also, an Ephesian imprisonment of Paul is largely conjectural and not at all mentioned in Acts even though Luke goes into great detail about Paul’s ministry in Ephesus (Acts 19).

Roman Origin#

In favor of Rome, “Praetorian Guard” (literally, “the whole praetorium,” 1:13) and “Caesar’s household” (4:22) most likely point to Rome. According to 1:19-27, Paul’s life is at stake in the trial (“whether by life or by death,” for instance). The trial must therefore be before Caesar in Rome, for in any other location Paul could always exercise his right of appeal to Caesar. The early tradition of the Marcionite prologue likewise assigns the letter to Rome. For all these reasons and because of the weakness of arguments to the contrary, the traditional view that Paul writes Philippians from Rome remains the best.

Summary#

Paul writes Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon while in prison—hence the designation “Prison Letters.” Traditionally and probably, it is from his imprisonment in Rome that he writes; but his imprisonments in Caesarea and possibly in Ephesus offer other possibilities.

Paul writes to Philemon on behalf of Philemon’s slave Onesimus, who has stolen from Philemon, run away, become a Christian through Paul, and is returning to Philemon. Paul’s letter urges Philemon to receive Onesimus forgivingly and welcome him into Philemon’s house-church. Paul also assumes Onesimus’s financial debt but hints that Philemon cancel it and loan Onesimus to help Paul, possibly even to free him for that purpose.

Epaphras founded the largely Gentile church in Colossae; but a heresy of mixed legalistic, philosophic, and mystical ingredients is infecting the church there, so that he has left it in charge of Archippus and has been seeking Paul’s help against the heresy. Paul’s antidote exalts Christ over against ritualism, Greek speculation, and asceticism. After two chapters of doctrine, the letter closes with two chapters of instructions on Christian living.

Like Colossians, Ephesians divides into halves, doctrinal and hortatory—only each half has three chapters instead of two. Whereas Colossians highlights Christ as the head of his body the church, Ephesians highlights the church as the body whose head he is. As such, the church enjoys heavenly blessings and a unity in Christ that destroys the old antipathy between Jews and Gentiles. And though the demonic powers of evil attack the church, it can withstand in the Lord’s might. A man named Tychicus is to deliver Ephesians along with Colossians and Philemon; but though misnamed after the city of Ephesus, the letter called Ephesians circulated to churches in the outlying region.

Paul writes Philippians toward the end of his imprisonment and expects to be released soon and visit the church in Philippi. Through one of their members, Epaphroditus, they have sent him financial help; so he thanks them for it in this letter, which Epaphroditus will carry with him on his return. Paul takes advantage of the opportunity to include also a correction of division in the church and a warning against Judaizers. A note of joy sounds throughout the letter, and the letter contains famous passages on Christ’s self-emptying and exaltation and on Paul’s transformation from a self-righteous persecutor of the church to a pursuer of God’s high calling in Christ.