Introductory Issues#

Theme#

The author of Hebrews portrays Jesus Christ distinctively as a priest who, having offered none other than himself as the completely sufficient sacrifice for sins, now ministers in the heavenly sanctuary. The purpose of this portrayal, which emphasizes the superiority of Christ over every aspect and hero of Old Testament religion, is to ensure that the recipients of the letter do not apostatize from Christianity back to Judaism.

Authorship#

Early church tradition exhibits uncertainty over the authorship of this anonymous letter. Nevertheless, at a very early date Hebrews was known and used in 1 Clement (about A.D. 95); and right up to the present time guesswork has flourished on the question of authorship.

Paul#

In the eastern part of the Roman Empire, Paul was usually regarded as author of Hebrews. Its theology does resemble his when we compare:

• the preexistence and creatorship of Christ in Hebrews 1:1-4 with Colossians 1:15-17

• the humiliation of Christ in Hebrews 2:14-17 with Philippians 2:5-8

• the new covenant in Hebrews 8:6 with 2 Corinthians 3:4-11

• the distribution of gifts by the Holy Spirit in Hebrews 2:4 with 1 Corinthians 12:11

The western segment of the church doubted Paul’s authorship, however, and at first even excluded Hebrews from the canon because of the uncertain authorship. This fact shows that the early church did not gullibly accept books into the canon without first examining their credentials as to authorship, trustworthiness, and doctrinal purity.

Barnabas#

Some have suggested Barnabas, whose Levitical background (Acts 4:36) fits the interest in priestly functions evident throughout Hebrews and whose association with Paul would explain the similarities to Pauline theology. But as a resident of Jerusalem (Acts 4:36-37), Barnabas probably heard and saw Jesus, whereas the author of Hebrews includes himself among those who had to depend on others for eyewitness testimony (Hebrews 2:3 again).

Luke#

As another companion of Paul, Luke is also a candidate for the authorship of Hebrews because of similarities between the polished Greek style of Hebrews and that of Luke-Acts. But Luke-Acts is Gentile in outlook, Hebrews very Jewish.

Apollos#

Martin Luther suggested Apollos, whose acquaintance with Paul (1 Corinthians 16:12) and being tutored by Priscilla and Aquila (Acts 18:26) would account for the likenesses in Hebrews to Pauline theology. Apollos’s learning or eloquence (Acts 18:24, 27-28) could have produced the refined literary style of Hebrews. And his Alexandrian background fits Hebrews’ frequent and nearly exclusive use of the Septuagint in Old Testament quotations, for the Septuagint was produced in Alexandria, Egypt. Some scholars also draw a parallel between the allegorical interpretation of the Old Testament by the Jewish philosopher Philo, a contemporary of Apollos and fellow native of Alexandria, and the treatment of the Old Testament in Hebrews. But Hebrews treats the Old Testament as typological history rather than as allegory, and the lack of early tradition favoring Apollos leaves doubt.

Silvanus#

To suppose that Paul’s companion Silvanus (Silas) authored the letter would again explain the similarities to Pauline theology. Not much more can be said for or against authorship by Silvanus.

Philip#

The same is true of the suggestion that Philip wrote Hebrews.

Priscilla#

Adolf von Harnack suggested Priscilla because of her close association with Paul and her teaching of Apollos. Harnack ingeniously argued that she left the book anonymous because of the cultural unacceptability of female authorship.

Clement#

Likenesses between Hebrews and 1 Clement make Clement of Rome a possibility. But there are also many differences in outlook; and Clement probably borrowed from Hebrews. So like the early church father Origen, we may conclude that only God knows who wrote Hebrews.

Adressees#

Despite the traditional heading, “To the Hebrews,” some have thought that Hebrews was originally addressed to Gentile Christians. For support, an appeal is made to the polished Greek style of the letter and its extensive use of the Septuagint, with only an occasional departure from that Greek translation of the Old Testament. But these phenomena imply nothing about the original addressees; they indicate only the background of the author.

The frequent appeal to the Old Testament, the presupposed knowledge of Jewish ritual, the warning not to apostatize back to Judaism, and the early traditional title all point to Jewish Christians as the original recipients. Some scholars go so far as to identify them with converted Jewish priests in Jerusalem (Acts 6:7) or with converts from the sect at Qumran, where the Dead Sea Scrolls were produced (but see the following two paragraphs).

Destination#

At first blush it might seem most likely that these Jewish Christians lived in Palestine. But according to 2:3 they neither saw nor heard Jesus for themselves during his earthly ministry, as many Palestinian Christians doubtless did; and according to 6:10 they materially assisted other Christians, whereas Palestinian Christians were poor and had to receive aid (Acts 11:27-30; Romans 15:26; 2 Corinthians 8:1-9:15). Furthermore, the addressees’ knowledge of Jewish ritual appears to have come from the Old Testament in its Septuagintal version rather than from attendance at the temple services in Jerusalem; and the statement, “Those from Italy greet you” (13:24), sounds as though Italians away from Italy are sending greetings back home. If so, Rome is the probable destination. Supporting this conclusion is the fact that evidence for the knowledge of Hebrews surfaces first in Rome (1 Clement).

Alternatively, it has been proposed that Apollos wrote Hebrews in A.D. 52-54 at Ephesus and sent it to the church in Corinth, especially to its Jewish Christian members. This proposal draws many parallels between Hebrews and Paul’s Corinthian correspondence and identifies “those from Italy” (13:24) as Priscilla and Aquila, who originally moved to Corinth from Rome but subsequently accompanied Paul from Corinth to Ephesus.2 It remains a difficulty, however, that the author of Hebrews does not mention Priscilla and Aquila by name rather than by a generalizing phrase, especially since he has just mentioned Timothy by name.

Purpose#

Wherever the addressees lived, they are well known to the author. He writes about their generosity (6:10), their persecution (10:32-34; 12:4), their immaturity (5:11-6:12), and his hope of revisiting them soon (13:19, 23). Two additional details may be significant: (1) the addressees are exhorted to greet not only the leaders and fellow Christians in their own assembly, but also “all the saints” (13:24); (2) they are rebuked for not meeting together often enough (10:25). Possibly, then, they are a Jewish Christian group or house-church who have broken away from the main body of Christians in their locality and who stand in danger of lapsing back into Judaism to avoid persecution.

The main purpose of the letter is to prevent such apostasy and restore them into mainstream Christian fellowship. The immediate fading of a sure tradition concerning authorship may be due to separatism on the part of the addressees.

Date#

The use of Hebrews in 1 Clement requires a date of writing before A.D. 95 or so, the date of 1 Clement. It is sometimes argued further that the present tense of verbs in Hebrews describing sacrificial rituals implies a date before A.D. 70, when Titus destroyed the temple and sacrifices ceased to be offered. But other writings that most certainly date from after A.D. 70 continue to use the present tense about Mosaic rituals (1 Clement, Josephus, Justin Martyr, the Talmud).

Furthermore, Hebrews does not describe the ritual of the temple, but the ritual of the pre-Solomonic tabernacle (a portable tent-sanctuary that the Israelites used on their way from Mount Sinai to the land of Canaan). Therefore the present tense may represent only a vivid literary style and cannot settle the question of Hebrews’ date.

What does favor a date before A.D. 70, however, is the lack of any reference in Hebrews to the destruction of the temple as a divine indication that the Old Testament sacrificial system has been outmoded. The author would probably have used such a historical argument were he writing after that event.

Literary Form#

As do other letters, Hebrews concludes with personal allusions; but unlike other letters, it has no introductory greeting. The oratorical style and remarks such as “time would fail me to tell” (11:32) might seem to indicate a sermon. But the statement, “I have written you briefly” (13:22), requires us to acknowledge that Hebrews is a letter after all, written in sermonic style.

Christ’s Superiority#

To keep his audience from lapsing back into Judaism, the author of Hebrews emphasizes the superiority of Christ over all else, especially over various features of Judaism arising out of the Old Testament. The phrase “better than” epitomizes this dominant theme of Christ’s superiority, a theme punctuated throughout the book by exhortations not to apostatize.

Summary#

We do not know who wrote Hebrews. The author wrote anonymously but exhibits theological influence from Paul. The letter appears to have been written to Jewish Christians in Italy, probably Rome, who had suffered persecution but were neglecting to meet with other Christians, probably to hide their Christian identity.

The author fears they will apostatize back into their prior Jewish faith; so he warns that apostasy will incur God’s judgment and stresses the superiority of Jesus over the Old Testament prophets, over the angels through whom the Jews believed God gave them the Mosaic law, over Moses himself, over Joshua, and over Aaron and his priestly descendants.

Particular emphasis falls on Christ’s human sympathy, divine appointment, eternality, heavenly locale, and likeness to Melchizedek—all within a portrayal of Christ as our great high priest.